Manufacture and use of a starch-based substitute fiber material

ABSTRACT

Substitute fiber materials include at least one starch, at least one acid, and at least one plasticizer. The starch may be ground whole grain, the acid may be citric acid, and the plasticizer may be glycerin. The substitute materials are biodegradable and compostable. Methods involve feeding animals the substitute fiber materials as a substitute for or a supplement to natural fiber. The substitute fiber materials are at least partially digested in the animal.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present disclosure relates to substitute fiber material, such asstarch-based fiber material, and methods of feeding such substitutefiber material to animals.

BACKGROUND

High-fiber sources such as forages, which include grasses, hay, andsilage, are commonly ingested by livestock animals. When growingconditions result in a shortage of forages, other fiber sources caninclude cottonseed hulls, whole cottonseeds, and soy hulls. However,these feeds are typically limited to 10% to 15% of the dry matter intakeby the animal. For high-fiber sources, high-energy feed sources may beused to supplement the diet and may include corn, hominy, barley, milo,soybeans, or other grains.

SUMMARY

Provided herein are substitute fiber materials (SFM) and methods offeeding SFM that may be used as a fiber replacement or fiber substitute.The SFM of the present disclosure may be partially or completelydigested in the digestive tract of an animal and/or partially orcompletely composted post-excretion.

The SFM comprises at least one starch, at least one cross-linker, and atleast one plasticizer. In some implementations, a method of feeding aruminant the SFM is provided, and the SFM is at least partially digestedby the ruminant. In some embodiments, the starch is present in an amountof about 25 wt % to about 70 wt % by dry weight of the SFM. In someembodiments, the starch is a whole grain. In some embodiments, the wholegrain comprises one or more of corn, wheat, oat, or barley. In someembodiments, the whole grain has a particle size such that about 20% to55% of the particles pass through a 200 mesh screen. In someembodiments, the whole grain has a particle size such that about 3% to10% of the particles pass through a 400 mesh screen. In someembodiments, the cross-linker is an edible acid and comprises one ormore of acetic acid, citric acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid, malic acid,phosphoric acid or tartaric acid. In some embodiments, the plasticizercomprises one or more of arabitol, erythritol, glycerin, isomalt,lactitol, maltitol, mannitol, sorbitol or xylitol. In some embodiments,the SFM is biodegradable. In some embodiments, the SFM is at leastpartially degraded in each of the rumen, the abomasum, and the smallintestines. In some embodiments, the SFM is at least partially degradedin the rumen. In some embodiments, the SFM has a total tractdigestibility of about 100 percent. In some embodiments, the SFMcomprises strips of about 0.2 cm to 20 cm in length.

Also disclosed herein is a SFM comprising at least one starch, at leastone cross-linker, and at least one plasticizer, the starch is a wholegrain ground such that about 20% to 55% of the particles pass through a200 mesh screen and about 3% to 10% of the particles pass through a 400mesh screen, the SFM is digestible by a ruminant, and the SFMcompostable. In some embodiments, the whole grain is corn, wheat, oat,or barley. In some embodiments, the cross-linker is an edible acid andcomprises one or more of acetic acid, citric acid, fumaric acid, lacticacid, malic acid, phosphoric acid or tartaric acid. In some embodiments,the plasticizer comprises one or more of arabitol, erythritol, glycerin,isomalt, lactitol, maltitol, mannitol, sorbitol or xylitol.

This Summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in asimplified form that are further described below in the DetailedDescription. This Summary is not intended to identify key features oressential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended tobe used to limit the scope of the claimed subject matter. A moreextensive presentation of features, details, utilities, and advantagesof the present invention as defined in the claims is provided in thefollowing written description of various embodiments of the inventionand illustrated in the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a graph illustrating the amount of SFM degraded after in saccodigestion for up to 48 hours with error bars indicating the standarddeviation.

FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating the amount of SFM or alfalfa stemsremaining after composting for up to 11 weeks.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Overview

Provided herein are substitute fiber materials (SFM) and methods offeeding SFM to animals. The SFM may be fed as a complete food source, asubstitute fiber source, or a supplement to natural forage sources. Insome embodiments, the SFM may be for feeding ruminants, and inparticular, may become part of the rumen mat material for the ruminants.

Ruminants are even-toed, hoofed animals which have a complex three- orfour-chamber stomach and which typically rechew what they havepreviously swallowed. The four sections of the ruminant stomach include:a rumen, a reticulum, an omasum, and an abomasum. Each section of thestomach serves a different function in the digestive process. In therumen, food is mixed with saliva and then churned in a coordinatedmotion. The food mixture undergoes some fermentation and bacterialdigestion in the rumen. The mixture of food and saliva then passes tothe reticulum where the mixture is formed into a cud that can beregurgitated. After thorough chewing of the regurgitated cud, the cud isreswallowed and then passes from the rumen through the reticulum andinto the omasum, if particle size restrictions are satisfied. While inthe omasum, the mixture is additionally mixed to maintain it in ahomogenous state and to remove excess fluid. Then the homogenous mixtureis passed from the omasum to the abomasum, where gastric digestionoccurs.

Domesticated ruminants usually graze on or are fed natural forages suchas alfalfa silage or grass hay as a portion of the feed component, alongwith other high energy feed components such as grain or concentrates.Forages are generally considered essential in order to maintain animalhealth because they provide nutrition and also help form a mat in therumen.

The rumen mat, which is comprised of undigested forage fiber, acts as afiltering agent for ruminal contents. Below the mat, flowing fluid ofundigested nutrients moves out of the rumen. A normal mat mayselectively retain contents in the rumen to facilitate digestibility andfeed efficiency. A relatively small mat causes fluid to move through therumen at a fast rate, which results in a lower feed efficiency (e.g.,higher intake) and lower rumen digestibility. A relatively larger matcauses fluid to move through the rumen at a slow rate, which results inhigher rumen digestibility of starch, fiber, and other dietarynutrients. The larger mat may also cause the ruminant to reduce feedingdue to the fiber exerting much pressure against the ruminal wall. Therumen mat has also been shown to produce a scraping or scratching actionthat helps maintain healthy rumen wall tissues, stimulates salivaproduction and slows passage rates.

When forage is unavailable or expensive, an artificial fiber cansubstitute or supplement natural forages. Artificial forages are oftennon-digestible petroleum-based plastics. Non-digestible artificialforages provide no nutritional value to ruminants. Non-digestibleartificial forages that are not biodegradable not only pass through theanimals, but also do not degrade in fecal matter, which results inpollution and disposal problems. Some portions of non-digestibleartificial forages do not pass through the animals because they becomelodged in animals' tissues, such as the cheek meet.

Applicant has discovered that a substitute or manufactured substitutefiber material (SFM) may provide benefits over natural fiber sourcessuch as natural forages and over non-digestible artificial forages. TheSFM may include at least one starch, at least one cross-linker, and atleast one plasticizer. The combination of components plus water mayyield an edible, digestible, biodegradable and cross-linked bioplastic.Unlike prior approaches in which the substitute SFM is non-digestible,the SFM of the present disclosure may be partially or completelydigested in the digestive tract of an animal. For instance, thepresently disclosed SFM are partially or completely digestible in therumen of a ruminant. It was surprisingly found that the degradability ofSFM approximates that of alfalfa stems. (Example 3; see also Example 5.)SFM comprises at least one starch and would be expected to degrade likea starch, but it surprisingly degrades like a fiber (alfalfa stems). SFMwould be expected to degrade rapidly because it comprises a rapidlydegradable starch, but it surprisingly degrades more slowly.Approximating the ruminal degradability of alfalfa indicates that theSFM may be used as a substitute for alfalfa or other fibers in the diet.

In embodiments, the SFM may be partially or completely digestible in theabomasum or the small intestines or both the abomasum and the smallintestines of a ruminant. (Example 4.) SFM may be completely digested inthe digestive tract of a ruminant. (Example 4.)

Also, unlike prior approaches in which the substitute forage is notbiodegradable, the SFM of the present disclosure may be partially orcompletely composted. For instance, the presently disclosed SFM may bebiodegradable or compostable. In embodiments, any portion of a SFM thatis not digested in an animal and is instead passed into manure isdegradable at least by composting. SFM may be compostable to a greaterextent than alfalfa stems, at a faster rate than alfalfa stems, or bothto a greater extent than and at a faster rate than alfalfa stems.(Example 7.)

Fiber Material Compositions

Fiber materials of the present disclosure may include at least onesource of starch, at least one cross-linker, and at least oneplasticizer. The SFM may also include water, at least one fat, fiber,grains, protein, vitamins, minerals and other components.

In embodiments, the at least one starch is a digestible starch or starchcomponent. As used herein, a digestible starch or starch componentrefers to those carbohydrate fractions that are digested, degraded,solubilized or otherwise broken down to another form. In embodiments,the digestible starch may be characterized as a ruminally digestiblestarch, which may be digested, degraded, solubilized or otherwise brokendown to another form in the rumen. Such starch or starch componentsincludes both starch and sugars.

Sources for the starch include, but are not limited to, corn grain, cornflour, corn silage, corn starch, corn byproducts, sorghum grain, sorghumsilage, sorghum byproducts, milo, wheat grain, wheat flour, wheatsilage, wheat bran, red dog wheat, wheat flour, wheat middlings, wheatbyproducts, barley grain, barley flour, barley silage, barleybyproducts, oat grain, oat flour, oat silage, oat byproducts, bakerybyproducts, hominy feed, peas, malt sprouts, rice, rice flour, ricebyproducts, cereal feed, sucrose, lactose, glucose, dextrose, maltose,and tubers such as potatoes, yams, sweet potatoes, cassava, and arrowroot.

In embodiments, the starch is from a whole grain, such as whole corn,whole wheat, whole oat, or whole barley. The whole grain may be groundto produce finely ground particles. In embodiments, about 20% to 55% ofthe particles pass through a 200 mesh screen (e.g., an opening of about0.074 mm), or about 22% to 55%, or about 25% to 55%, or about 30% to55%, or about 35% to 55%, or about 40% to 55%, or about 20% to 50%, orabout 20% to 45%, or about 20% to 40%, or about 20% to 35%, or about 20%to 30%, or about 22% to 50%, or about 25% to 45%, or about 30% to 40% ofthe particles pass through a 200 mesh screen.

In embodiments, about 3% to 10% of the particles pass through a 400 meshscreen (e.g., an opening of about 0.037 mm), or about 4% to 10%, orabout 5% to 10%, or about 6% to 10%, or about 3% to 9%, or about 3% to8%, or about 3% to 7%, or about 4% to 9%, or about 5% to 8%, or about 6%of the particles pass through a 400 mesh screen.

In embodiments, grinding whole grain exposes more starch forcross-linking, such as cross-linking by an acid. In addition, the sizeof the whole ground grain may affect the rate and the extent ofdigestion of the SFM described herein.

In embodiments, the starch is present in the SFM at about 2 wt % to 25wt % based on the total weight of the SFM before drying (see Examples 1and 2), or about 4 wt % to 25 wt %, or about 6 wt % to 25 wt %, or about8 wt % to 25 wt %, or about 10 wt % to 25 wt %, or about 12 wt % to 25wt %, or about 14 wt % to 25 wt %, or about 2 wt % to 20 wt %, or about2 wt % to 18 wt %, or about 2 wt % to 16 wt %, or about 2 wt % to 14 wt%, or about 2 wt % to 12 wt %, or about 4 wt % to 20 wt %, or about 6 wt% to 18 wt %, or about 8 wt % to 16 wt %, based on the total weight ofthe SFM before drying.

In embodiments, the starch is present in the dry SFM at about 25 wt % to70 wt % based on the total weight of the dry SFM, or about 30 wt % to 70wt %, or about 35 wt % to 70 wt %, or about 40 wt % to 70 wt %, or about45 wt % to 70 wt %, or about 50 wt % to 70 wt %, or about 25 wt % to 65wt %, or about 25 wt % to 60 wt %, or about 25 wt % to 55 wt %, or about25 wt % to 50 wt %, or about 25 wt % to 45 wt %, or about 30 wt % to 65wt %, or about 35 wt % to 60 wt %, or about 40 wt % to 55 wt %, based onthe total weight of the dry SFM.

In embodiments, the at least one cross-linker is an acid. Inembodiments, the acid is an edible acid. Edible acids include, but arenot limited to, acetic acid, citric acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid,malic acid, phosphoric acid, and tartaric acid. Acetic acid may be inthe form of vinegar. The vinegar may be about 4-18% acetic acid by mass.For example, the vinegar may be about 8% acetic acid by mass.Embodiments of the SFM comprising citric acid improve palatability ofthe SFM. The acid may be in liquid or dry, such as powdered, form. Forexample, citric acid may be in liquid or dry form. Without being limitedto any mechanism or mode of action, the acid may cross-link the starch.

In embodiments, the cross-linker is present in the SFM at about 0.2 wt %to 16 wt % based on the total weight of the SFM before drying (seeExamples 1 and 2), or about 0.4 wt % to 16 wt %, or about 0.6 wt % to 16wt %, or about 0.8 wt % to 16 wt %, or about 1 wt % to 16 wt %, or about2 wt % to 16 wt %, or about 4 wt % to 16 wt %, or about 0.2 wt % to 14wt %, or about 0.2 wt % to 12 wt %, or about 0.2 wt % to 10 wt %, orabout 0.2 wt % to 8 wt %, or about 0.4 wt % to 14 wt %, or about 0.8 wt% to 12 wt %, or about 1 wt % to 10 wt %, or about 2 wt % to 8 wt %based on the total weight of the SFM before drying.

In embodiments, the cross-linker is present in the dry SFM at about 0.2wt % to 10 wt % based on the total weight of the dry SFM, or about 0.4wt % to 10 wt %, or about 0.6 wt % to 10 wt %, or about 0.8 wt % to 10wt %, or about 1 wt % to 10 wt %, or about 2 wt % to 10 wt %, or about 4wt % to 10 wt %, or about 0.2 wt % to 9 wt %, or about 0.2 wt % to 8 wt%, or about 0.2 wt % to 7 wt %, or about 0.2 wt % to 6 wt %, or about0.2 wt % to 5 wt %, or about 0.4 wt % to 8 wt %, or about 0.8 wt % to 6wt %, or about 1 wt % to 5 wt %, or about 2 wt % to 4 wt % based on thetotal weight of the dry SFM.

In embodiments, the at least one plasticizer is a generally recognizedas safe (GRAS) bio-based plasticizer. In embodiments, the plasticizer isa crude or refined sugar alcohol including, but not limited to,arabitol, erythritol, glycerin (glycerol), isomalt, lactitol, maltitol,mannitol, sorbitol, or xylitol. In embodiments, the plasticizer, such asglycerin, is metabolized as a carbohydrate and provides an energysource.

In embodiments, the plasticizer is present in the SFM at about 1 wt % to24 wt % based on the total weight of the SFM before drying (see Examples1 and 2), or about 2 wt % to 24 wt %, or about 3 wt % to 24 wt %, orabout 4 wt % to 24 wt %, or about 6 wt % to 24 wt %, or about 8 wt % to24 wt %, or about 10 wt % to 24 wt %, or about 1 wt % to 20 wt %, orabout 1 wt % to 18 wt %, or about 1 wt % to 16 wt %, or about 1 wt % to14 wt %, or about 1 wt % to 12 wt %, or about 2 wt % to 20 wt %, orabout 3 wt % to 18 wt %, or about 4 wt % to 16 wt %, or about 6 wt % to14 wt % based on the total weight of the SFM before drying. Loweramounts of plasticizer may yield a stiffer or more rigid SFM and higheramounts of plasticizer may yield a more flexible SFM.

In embodiments, the plasticizer is present in the dry SFM at about 5 wt% to 40 wt % based on the total weight of the dry SFM, or about 7 wt %to 40 wt %, or about 9 wt % to 40 wt %, or about 11 wt % to 40 wt %, orabout 13 wt % to 40 wt %, or about 15 wt % to 40 wt %, or about 20 wt %to 40 wt %, or about 25 wt % to 40 wt %, or about 5 wt % to 38 wt %, orabout 5 wt % to 36 wt %, or about 5 wt % to 34 wt %, or about 5 wt % to32 wt %, or about 5 wt % to 30 wt %, or about 5 wt % to 25 wt %, orabout 5 wt % to 20 wt %, or about 10 wt % to 35 wt %, or about 15 wt %to 30 wt %, or about 20 wt % to 25 wt % based on the total weight of thedry SFM.

In embodiments, the SFM includes water. In embodiments, the water ispresent in the SFM at about 45 wt % to 95 wt % based on the total weightof the SFM before drying (see Examples 1 and 2), or about 50 wt % to 95wt %, or about 55 wt % to 95 wt %, or about 60 wt % to 95 wt %, or about65 wt % to 95 wt %, or about 70 wt % to 95 wt %, or about 45 wt % to 90wt %, or about 45 wt % to 85 wt %, or about 45 wt % to 80 wt %, or about45 wt % to 75 wt %, or about 45 wt % to 70 wt %, or about 50 wt % to 90wt %, or about 55 wt % to 85 wt %, or about 60 wt % to 80 wt %, or about65 wt % to 75 wt % based on the total weight of the SFM before drying.

In embodiments, the SFM includes water. In embodiments, the water ormoisture is present in the dry SFM at about 1 wt % to 35 wt % based onthe total weight of the dry SFM, or about 2 wt % to 35 wt %, or about 3wt % to 35 wt %, or about 4 wt % to 35 wt %, or about 5 wt % to 35 wt %,or about 10 wt % to 35 wt %, or about 15 wt % to 35 wt %, or about 20 wt% to 35 wt %, or about 1 wt % to 32 wt %, or about 1 wt % to 30 wt %, orabout 1 wt % to 28 wt %, or about 1 wt % to 26 wt %, or about 1 wt % to20 wt %, or about 1 wt % to 15 wt %, or about 5 wt % to 30 wt %, orabout 5 wt % to 25 wt %, or about 10 wt % to 20 wt %, based on the totalweight of the dry SFM.

The SFM optionally includes at least one fat. The fat may providenutrients and may help release the SFM from the surface on which it wasplaced to dry. Fat may include but is not limited to: corn oil, canolaseeds or oil, cottonseed seeds or oil, linseed seeds or oil, safflowerseeds or oil, soybean seeds or oil, sunflower seeds or oil, fishmeal,white or yellow grease, lard, tallow and combinations.

In embodiments, the fat is present in the dry SFM at about 0.2 wt % to15 wt % based on the total weight of the dry SFM, or about 0.4 wt % to15 wt %, or about 0.6 wt % to 15 wt %, or about 0.8 wt % to 15 wt %, orabout 1 wt % to 15 wt %, or about 2 wt % to 15 wt %, or about 4 wt % to15 wt %, or about 6 wt % to 15 wt %, or about 8 wt % to 15 wt %, orabout 0.2 wt % to 13 wt %, or about 0.2 wt % to 11 wt %, or about 0.2 wt% to 9 wt %, or about 0.2 wt % to 7 wt %, or about 0.2 wt % to 5 wt %,or about 0.4 wt % to 10 wt %, or about 0.8 wt % to 8 wt %, or about 1 wt% to 5 wt %, or about 1 wt % to 3 wt % based on the total weight of thedry SFM.

In embodiments, the SFM includes one or more of a strengthener, ahumectant, and a palatant.

The strengthener may be any GRAS additive capable of strengthening abioplastic. The strengthener may be polysaccharide or protein-based. Thepolysaccharide may be a starch, vegetable gum, or pectin. Examples ofstarch strengtheners include, but are not limited to, arrowroot,cornstarch, fecula, katakuri starch, potato starch, sago, tapioca, orderivatives of any of the foregoing. Examples of vegetable gumstrengtheners include, but are not limited to, alginin, guar gum, locustbean gum, or xanthan gum. Examples of protein strengtheners include, butare not limited to, collagen, egg whites, furcellaran, and gelatin.

The humectant may be may be any GRAS additive capable of maintainingwater in a SFM or reducing or preventing water loss from a SFM. Examplesof humectants include, but are not limited to, formula feeds, feedpellets, feed nuggets, honey, glucose syrup, non-ionic polyols such assucrose, glycerin, and triacetin, and sodium hexametaphosphate.

The palatant may be any GRAS additive that improves acceptance and/orreduces exclusionary sorting of a SFM. Examples of palatant include, butare not limited to, molasses, such as cane molasses or beet molasses,flavorings, and any of the sugar alcohols disclosed herein.

In embodiments, the SFM includes one or more of fiber, grain, protein,vitamins, and minerals. Including one or more of fiber, grain, protein,vitamins, minerals and other components that may help the SFM providesome or all nutrients required by an animal. For instance, the SFM mayserve as a feed supplement or as a complete feed.

The fiber may include but is not limited to natural fibers includehulls, such as hulls of soy, grains, seeds, almonds, and peanuts, beetpulp, brewers grains, citrus pulp, corn gluten feed, dried distillersgrains, oats, wheat bran, wheat germ, wheat midds, and forages. Examplesof natural forage sources include, but are not limited to, alfalfasilage, corn silage, wheat silage, sorghum silage, oat silage, grasssilage, ryegrass silage, barley silage, triticale silage, grass hay,alfalfa hay, oat hay, wheat hay, barley hay, ryegrass hay, triticalehay, oat straw, wheat straw, barley straw, whole cottonseed, cottonseedhulls, beet pulp or any combination thereof. In implementations, animalsmay be fed the SFM instead of or in addition to natural sources offiber. The grain may include but is not limited to: corn, barley, wheat,or oats. The protein may include but is not limited to: fescue hay,haylage, shelled corn, raw or roasted soybeans, soybean meal, urea, corndistillers grains, brewers grains, or corn gluten meal. The vitamins mayinclude but are not limited to: A, B, D, E, or K. The minerals mayinclude but are not limited to: calcium, chlorine, cobalt, copper,iodine, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, potassium, selenium,sodium, sulfur, or zinc. Other components that may be incorporated inthe SFM include sodium bicarbonate and may provide the animal with asource of alkalinity.

Methods of Producing Fiber Material Compositions

In embodiments, the presently disclosed SFM may be prepared according toExamples 1 or 2. Before drying, the SFM may be poured into any shape,such as a thin, flat sheet. The sheet may be any thickness, such asabout 0.05 inch to 1.25 inches, about 0.06 inch to 1 inch, or about 0.25inch to 0.5 inch. The SFM may be extruded, such as by a syringe, intoflat strips or round, spaghetti-like strips, or any other shape. Oncedry, the SFM may be cut, such as with a paper cutter, scissors, orknife, into any desired particle shape and size.

In embodiments, preparation of SFM includes addition of a component thatreduces the density of the SFM. The component may reduce the density byreleasing gas bubbles that disperse through the material. The componentmay be one capable of breaking down in an acidic environment to producea gas. The component may be sodium bicarbonate or calcium carbonate,which may release carbon dioxide. In embodiments, reducing the densityof the SFM may beneficially help the SFM float in the rumen of aruminant and thereby mimic natural forage.

In embodiments, the density-reducing component is added when thematerial reaches a paste-like consistency. (See Example 1.) The thickconsistency of the material may trap gas bubbles and yield a less denseproduct.

In embodiments, the SFM is cut into strips after drying. In embodiments,the SFM is tumbled in a dryer to break the SFM strips into shorterlengths. The strips may be substantially rectangular or may be roundlike spaghetti. The strips may be substantially the same length or maybe different lengths. In embodiments, the strips are about 0.2 cm to 20cm in length, or about 0.5 cm to 20 cm, or about 1 cm to 20 cm, or about2 cm to 20 cm, or about 4 cm to 20 cm, or about 6 cm to 20 cm, or about8 cm to 20 cm, or about 10 cm to 20 cm, or about 0.2 cm to 18 cm, orabout 0.2 cm to 16 cm, or about 0.2 cm to 14 cm, or about 0.2 cm to 12cm, or about 0.2 cm to 10 cm, or about 0.2 cm to 8 cm, or about 0.5 cmto 18 cm, or about 1 cm to 16 cm, or about 2 cm to 14 cm, or about 4 cmto 12 cm, or about 6 cm to 10 cm, or about 2 cm to 4 cm in length.

In embodiments, the dried strips are about 0.2 mm to 20 mm in diameter,or about 0.5 mm to 20 mm, or about 1 mm to 20 mm, or about 2 mm to 20mm, or about 4 mm to 20 mm, or about 6 mm to 20 mm, or about 8 mm to 20mm, or about 10 mm to 20 mm, or about 0.2 mm to 18 mm, or about 0.2 mmto 16 mm, or about 0.2 mm to 14 mm, or about 0.2 mm to 12 mm, or about0.2 mm to 10 mm, or about 0.2 mm to 8 mm, or about 0.5 mm to 18 mm, orabout 1 mm to 16 mm, or about 2 mm to 14 mm, or about 2 mm to 12 mm, orabout 4 mm to 8 mm in diameter.

Methods of Feeding Substitute Fiber Material

The SFM may be provided to an animal as a substitute for the entireamount of natural fiber in a ration. The SFM may be provided to ananimal as a substitute for a portion of the natural fiber in a rationand may thereby be provided along with natural fiber. When the animal isa ruminant, the SFM may be provided as a substitute for the entireamount or a portion of the natural forage in a ration.

In addition or alternatively, the SFM fed to animals includes componentssuch as fiber, grain, protein, vitamins, or minerals, and is provided asa feed supplement or a complete feed. Accordingly, the SFM may beprovided as part of any animal diet. For example, the SFM may beprovided with concentrates, forages, and/or other feed components. TheSFM may also be provided with natural fiber. In more particularimplementations, the SFM is provided as part of any ruminant diet. Forexample, the SFM may be provided with concentrates, forages, and/orother feed components. The SFM may be provided as part of a total mixedration. The SFM may also be provided with natural forage or othernatural roughages. In implementations, the SFM is provided to lactatingruminants, such as dairy cows. In implementations, the SFM is providedto beef cows.

The SFM may be provided at about 1% to 100% by weight of a total dailyration, or about 2% to 100%, or about 5% to 100%, or about 10% to 100%,or about 15% to 100%, or about 20% to 100%, or about 25% to 100%, orabout 30% to 70%, or about 35% to 100%, or about 40% to 100%, or about t45% to 100%, or about 50% to 100%, or about 55% to 100%, or about 60% to100%, or about 65% to 100%, or about 70% to 100%, or about 75% to 100%,or about 80% to 100%, or about 85% to 100%, or about 90% to 100%, orabout 1% to 65%, or about 1% to 95%, or about 1% to 90%, or about 1% to85%, or about 1% to 80%, or about 1% to 75%, or about 1% to 70%, orabout 1% to 65%, or about 1% to 60%, or about 1% to 55%, or about 1% to50%, or about 1% to 45%, or about 1% to 40%, or about 1% to 35%, orabout 1% to 30%, or about 1% to 25%, or about 1% to 20%, or about 1% to15%, or about 1% to 10%, or about 2% to 65%, or about 5% to 60%, orabout 10% to 55%, or about 15% to 50%, or about 20% to 55%, or about 25%to 50%, or about 30% to 45%, or about 1% to 6%, or about 7% to 16%, orabout 7% to 11%, or about 55% to 61% by weight of a total daily ration.

The SFM may be provided to an animal alone or the SFM may be mixed intoa feed ration. The SFM may be provided to an animal at each feeding in aday, or at some, but not all, feedings in a day. When the SFM isprovided at more than one feeding in a day, it may be provided in thesame amount or different amounts at each feeding.

The SFM may be cut to one or more desired shapes and sizes before beingfed to an animal. In addition or alternatively, the SFM may be providedin preselected sizes. In embodiments, the shape and size of the SFMencourages positive selection or does not encourage negative selectionby an animal when the animal sorts feed. SFM ingested by the ruminantmay be digested in the rumen, the abomasum and/or small intestines. Inthe rumen, the SFM may be partially digestible. For instance, the SFMmay be at least 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80 or 85 percentdigestible in the rumen. Digestibility in the rumen may depend, forinstance, on the particle size of the starch material in the SFM and therate and extent of digestion of the rumen contents; and approximately 40percent of the SFM may be digested in the rumen within 6 hours;approximately 45 percent of the SFM may digested within 10 hours;approximately 60 percent may be digested within 18 hours; approximately65 percent may be digested within 24 hours; and at least 70 percent maybe digested within 48 hours. In some implementations, the SFM may be atleast 0.4 cm pieces. In further implementations, the SFM may be at least6 cm pieces, and this size of SFM may digest slightly slower compared tothe aforementioned digestion levels. However, in some cases, ruminaldigestion of the SFM may be at a level of about 75 to about 85 percentof the total amount of the SFM after about 24 hours of ruminalfermentation. When passing to the abomasum, the SFM may be furtherdigested and about 95 to 99 percent of the total amount of the SFM.Passage to the small intestines may result in the remainder of the SFMdigesting in the ruminant. Accordingly, in some implementations, the SFMmay be completely digested in the digestive tract of the ruminant; andfor instance, the total tract digestibility of the SFM may be 100percent.

The SFM ingested by the animal mimics the physical characteristics ofnatural fibers and may be a substitute for or a supplement to naturalsources of fiber. For instance, the SFM may be included in the animaldiet when natural fibers are scarce or not available, such as in timesof drought. The SFM may additionally or alternatively be incorporated into the animal diet in order to reduce or eliminate expensive naturalfiber. In addition or alternatively, the SFM may be provided as asupplement to or substitute for natural forage. For instance, the SFMmay be included in the ruminant diet when natural forages are scarce ornot available, such as in times of drought. The SFM may additionally oralternatively be incorporated in to the ruminant diet in order to reduceor eliminate expensive natural forage and supplementing.

In implementations, the SFM ingested by the animal mimics thedigestibility of natural fibers. In implementations, the SFM ispartially or completely digested by the animal. In implementations, theSFM is partially or completely digested in the digestive tract of ananimal. In implementations, the rate of digestion of the SFM is similarto the rate of digestion of natural fibers. In implementations, animalsgain nutritional value from the SFM when it is digested. Inimplementations, the SFM is partially or completely biodegradable orcompostable.

In implementations, the SFM mimics the digestibility of natural forages.In implementations, the SFM fed to the animal is partially or completelydigested by the ruminant. In implementations, the SFM is partially orcompletely digested in the digestive tract of a ruminant. Inimplementations, ruminants gain nutritional value from the SFM when itis digested.

In implementations, the SFM mimics the rumen digestibility of naturalforages. In implementations, the SFM is partially or completely digestedin the rumen of a ruminant. In implementations, the SFM is digestedpartially in the rumen and digested completely in the lower digestivetract.

In implementations, animals ingesting the SFM may produce less manurethan animals ingesting non-digestible artificial forages. The reducedamount of manure may be a result of the partial or completedigestibility of the SFM in the digestive tract of the ruminant.

In implementations, animals ingesting the SFM may produce less manurethan animals ingesting natural forage or fiber sources. The reducedamount of manure may be a result of the partial or completedigestibility of the SFM in the digestive tract of the ruminant.

In implementations, animals ingesting the SFM may have a higher feedefficiency than animals ingesting non-digestible artificial forages. Theincreased feed efficiency may be a result of the partial or completedigestibility of the SFM in the digestive tract of the ruminant.

In implementations, animals ingesting the SFM may have a higher feedefficiency than animals ingesting natural forage or fiber sources. Theincreased feed efficiency may be a result of the partial or completedigestibility of the SFM in the digestive tract of the ruminant.

Animals ingesting the SFM may experience improved performance or maymaintain a desired level of performance compared to animals ingestingnatural fiber. Ruminants ingesting the SFM may experience improvedperformance or may maintain a desired level of performance compared toruminants ingesting natural forage. When provided to lactatingruminants, such as dairy cows, the SFM may beneficially assist in thetransition period and support metabolic balance. When provided to beefcows, the SFM beneficially serves as a forage replacement or extenderand also helps manage feedlot nutrition due to specific and predictabledegradation of the SFM.

While the products and methods of the present disclosure are oftendescribed in relation to ruminants raised for dairy or meat productionand feeding these ruminants the SFM, the SFM may be produced for otheranimals and be fed similarly to result in cost savings or improvedperformance. Some non-exhaustive examples of other ruminants andmonogastric animals include horses, sheep, goats, oxen, musk ox, llamas,alpacas, guanicos, deer, bison, antelopes, camels, zebras, and giraffes.

Implementations of the present disclosure are more particularlydescribed in the following examples that are for illustrative purposesonly. Numerous modifications and variations are within the scope of thepresent disclosure as will be apparent to those skilled in the art.

EXAMPLES Abbreviations

AF—As fed

Ctl—Control

DM—dry matter

Phos Acid—Phosphoric acid

RF—rumen fluid

TRT—treatment

Example 1—Starch-Based Plastic as a Substitute Fiber Material (SFM)

1.1—Materials and Methods

Starch-based fiber materials were prepared using the components of Table1.

TABLE 1 Components and Observations of Starch-Based Fiber MaterialsIngredient (wt % except Treatment A, vol %) Cold Corn TRT Water StarchGlycerin Vinegar Other Color A 70.5 17.6 5.9 5.9 N/A Clear B 75.3 10.57.0 7.2 N/A Pink C 78.0 10.9 3.6 7.5 N/A Clear D 78.1 10.9 7.2 3.8 N/AGreen E 62.4 11.0 7.0 4.0 Urea - 15.6 Blue F 78.0 10.0 7.0 4.0 XanthanYellow Gum - 1.0 G 60.0 11.0 7.0 7.0 Urea - 15.0 Blue H 74.0 10.0 7.07.0 Formula Purple Feed - 2.0 I 68.1 13.3 9.3 9.3 N/A Orange J 68.1 13.39.3 9.3 N/A Red

Treatments A to D and F to I of Table 1 were prepared in 100 g batchesby weighing each component into a beaker and then heating the blendedliquid on a hot plate with continuous agitation to maintain the starchin suspension. The material was heated until it began to thicken (about145° F.), and heating was maintained until the material was very thickand had a paste-like consistency (about 165° F. to 180° F.). Then it waspoured onto a stainless steel sheet coated with mineral oil as a releaseagent. The material was turned over after 24 hours to promote continueddrying on the underside of the material.

Treatment E was prepared according to the method for Treatments A to Dand F to I except that urea was dissolved in the water prior to addingthe other components.

Treatment J of Table 1 was prepared in 10 lb. batches by combining thecomponents in a blender and mixing them for 1 minute to ensure that thestarch was completely dispersed in the water. The material was thentransferred to a steam kettle where it was heated until thick. Then itwas poured onto a cookie sheet and placed on a rack in a hot room at115° F. to promote drying faster than at room temperature. After severalhours, when the top of the material had started to skin over, thematerial was removed from the cookie sheet and turned over on the wirerack to promote continued drying. After the material had dried for twodays, it was cut into strips using a paper cutter and scissors.

1.2—Observations and Results

Treatment A lost a considerable amount of mass due to dehydration. Itdried clear and very flexible. Treatment C, which comprised a reducedamount of glycerin compared to the other treatments, yielded a morerigid, slightly brittle product. The material of Treatment E was toosoft and did not heat to a high enough temperature during processing.The material of Treatment F did not mix or heat well and did not form asolid. The material of Treatment H lost a considerable amount of massduring drying despite the inclusion of a humectant. The material ofTreatment J appeared sensitive to the final heating temperature orheating time. The top surfaces of some batches of Treatment J remainedsmooth while drying but the top surfaces of other batches cracked.

The results demonstrate that a starch-based fiber material wassuccessfully produced with varying amounts of water, corn starch,glycerin, and vinegar.

Example 2—Fiber Materials Comprising Grain and Acid Combinations

Several grain sources, types of acids, and particle sizes of corn flourwere evaluated in Example 2.

2.1—Materials and Methods

Starch-based fiber materials were prepared using the components of Table2.

TABLE 2 Components of Starch-Based Fiber Materials Ingredient (wt %) ACMCitric Phos TRT Water Glycerin Corn Corn Oat Wheat Barley Vinegar acidacid 1 67.7 9.5 13.3 9.5 2 75.7 9.5 13.3 1.5 3 75.2 9.5 13.3 2 4 67.79.5 13.3 9.5 5 75.7 9.5 13.3 1.5 6 75.2 9.5 13.3 2 7 67.7 9.5 13.3 9.5 875.7 9.5 13.3 1.5 9 75.2 9.5 13.3 2 10 67.7 9.5 13.3 9.5 11 75.7 9.513.3 1.5 12 75.2 9.5 13.3 2 13 75.7 9.5 13.3 1.5

The average particle size of the ACM (Air Classifying Mill) ground cornwas smaller than that of the corn flour. For the ACM ground corn, 6%passed the 400 mesh screen of an Alpine sifter and 42% passed a 200 meshscreen. For the corn flour, 6% passed a 400 mesh screen and 27% passed a200 mesh screen.

The treatments of Table 2 were prepared by weighing the water, acid, andglycerin into a beaker and then heating the liquid on a hot plate withmagnetic stirring for several minutes. The flour was weighed and addedslowly to the stirred liquid to minimize or prevent clumping. When thematerial reached 150° F., mechanical stirring was ceased and manuallystirring with a spatula was commenced until the material reached 180° F.The material was then extruded on an ultra-high molecular weight plastictray using a syringe to deposit ¼-in diameter strips spaced about ¼ inapart. The product was dried in a hot room at a temperature of 120° F.for 24 hours. The dried strips were cut into 3-in lengths.

2.2—Observations and Results

Treatments 7, 8, and 9, which each comprised wheat flour, yieldedproducts that were much thicker than the products of other treatmentsand had very firm gel consistencies.

Treatments 3, 6, 9, and 12, which each comprised phosphoric acid,yielded products that were thinner than those of the correspondingtreatments that included the same grain source but a different acid. Forexample, Sample 3, which comprised corn and phosphoric acid, yielded aproduct that spread to twice its original width and dried as a thinsheet. Samples 1, 2, and 13, which each comprised corn and an acid otherthan phosphoric acid, produced products with round spaghetti-likeshapes.

Treatment 13, which comprised ACM corn with a small particle size, had asimilar consistency as Treatment 2, which comprised corn flour with alarger particle size.

Example 3—In Vitro Fermentation of Starch-Based Fiber Material

Treatments A to D of Example 1 and alfalfa stems as a control werestudied in an in vitro fermentation assay.

3.1—Materials and Methods

Van Soest and McDougall buffers for in vitro fermentation assays wereprepared according to standard protocols known in the art. Barr bufferwas prepared according to standard protocols except that the sodiumcarbonate was added at the end. Carbon dioxide was bubbled through eachbuffer to make it anaerobic.

Rumen fluid (RF) was prepared by collecting 50% liquid and 50% solidsfrom the rumen of 4 animals that had been fed 50% concentrate, 50%forage on a dry matter basis. The RF was blended under carbon dioxidefor 30 seconds, stained through 4 layers of cheese cloth, and thencentrifuge at 100×g for 10 min to remove feed particles and protozoa.The supernatant was used as inoculum.

Fermentations were conducted in 50 ml plastic centrifuge tubes, eachfitted with a #6 stopper and a fully depressed 60 ml catheter syringe tomeasure gas production. To each tube, 20 ml of buffer (Van Soest Buffer,McDougall Buffer, or Barr Buffer) prepared according to Table 3 wasadded. Then 10 ml of RF was added to each tube. Treatments A to D ofExample 1 and a control treatment (alfalfa stems) (0.3 g or 0.5 g ofeach) were fermented. Gas production, as indicated by change in volumeon the syringe, was measured every hour for 6, 10, or 24 hours, asindicated in Table 4. Tubes were opened and centrifuged for 10 min at10,000×g. The supernatant was analyzed for volatile fatty acids (VFAs).The pellets were analyzed for dry matter digestibility, neutraldetergent fiber (NDF) digestibility, and starch digestibility.

3.2—Results and Conclusions

For the date in Table 4, the moisture proportion was calculated bymeasuring the wet and dry weight of a given sample and dividing thedifference by the wet sample weight. The proportion of dry matter (DM)was calculated by subtracting the moisture value from 1. The starting DMwas calculated by multiplying the initial weight of a sample by the DMproportion. The remaining DM was determined by weighing the final drysample. Proportion loss was then calculated by subtracting the ratio ofremaining DM to starting DM from 1.

TABLE 4 In Vitro Fermentation Results Time Starting Remaining ProportionTreatment (h) DM (g) DM (g) Loss A 6 1.3827 0.8059 0.42 B 6 1.33840.7804 0.42 C 6 1.3759 0.9991 0.27 D 6 1.2978 0.7728 0.40 Control 61.3888 1.1385 0.18 A 10 1.3713 0.6626 0.52 B 10 1.3367 0.6739 0.50 C 101.4424 0.9112 0.37 D 10 1.3615 0.6792 0.50 Control 10 0.4539 0.2281 0.50A 24 1.4172 0.2622 0.81 B 24 1.3554 0.1662 0.88 C 24 1.4453 0.4680 0.68D 24 1.3739 0.3801 0.72 Control 24 0.4539 0.2029 0.55

The results of Table 4 demonstrate that digestion loss increased overtime, which indicates continued breakdown by fermentation over time. Theresults also indicate that treatments comprising lower amounts ofglycerin (see Treatment C) or vinegar (see Treatment D) had lower DMlosses at 24 hours.

At 10 hours, all SFM treatments were degraded to an extent equivalent tothat of control (alfalfa stems). The results demonstrate that SFMruminal degradability approximates alfalfa stem degradability. At 24hours, all SFM treatments were degraded to an extent greater than thatof control. The results demonstrate that the SFM is at least partiallydigestible in the rumen.

Example 4—In Vitro Digestion of Starch-Based Fiber Material

Treatments 1-13 of Example 2 were studied in an in vitro digestion assayto study the effects of starch and acid source on SFM breakdown in therumen and the small intestines as well as on suitability as a foodstuff.

4.1—Materials and Methods

Samples (0.5 g) were added to fermentation tubes along with 30 mL of twoparts anaerobic Van Soest buffer and one part prepared anaerobic rumenfluid. Each sample was fermented for the time indicated in Table 5 (6,10, or 24 hours). After fermentation, for fermentation-only (F) samples,tube contents were poured through a 1 mm strainer and sample particleswere collected and rinsed. The sample particles were dried at 55° C. Forfermentation and alpha-amylase (F, A) samples, 0.1 g of alpha-amylase(Ankom Technologies, Macedon, N.Y.) was added and incubated for 2 h at38.6° C. Samples were then strained, rinsed, and dried as described forthe fermentation-only samples. Fermentation simulates digestion in therumen and alpha-amylase treatment simulates digestion in the smallintestines.

Treatment J of Example 1 was used as a control either with rumen fluidthat had been strained through cheese cloth to remove feed particles(Treatment 14 in Table 5) or with rumen fluid that had been centrifugedto remove feed particles (Treatment 15 in Table 5).

4.2—Results and Conclusions

The data in Table 5 is an average of two replications for eachcondition.

TABLE 5 Digestibility Results Stan. Dev. at Time Time (h) (h) TreatmentCondition 6 10 24 6 10 24 1 F 32.56 16.54 0.31 13.36 5.05 0.35 F, A 1.870.68 0.60 0.96 0.20 0.06 2 F 27.82 7.80 0.35 17.42 7.91 0.19 F, A 0.340.20 0.46 0.43 0.11 0.03 3 F 18.79 6.20 0.53 3.75 1.65 0.69 F, A 0.620.42 0.20 0.76 0 0.22 4 F 16.50 1.52 0.48 13.01 0.84 0.54 F, A 5.62 0.070.07 5.82 0.04 0.04 5 F 12.24 1.31 0.51 6.43 0.22 0.67 F, A 2.54 0.090.10 2.22 0.01 0.08 6 F 10.55 5.97 0.20 13.60 2.56 0.20 F, A 0.50 0.080.14 0.66 0.03 0.14 7 F 22.04 4.58 0.68 9.87 1.02 0.59 F, A 1.79 0.130.34 2.42 0.12 0.23 8 F 9.81 5.07 0.29 0.19 6.73 0.35 F, A 1.82 0.520.31 2.22 0.36 0.24 9 F 18.23 2.78 0.23 1.79 1.69 0.13 F, A 1.63 0.720.25 1.82 0.65 0.24 10 F 27.04 9.24 0.05 16.33 11.72 0.02 F, A 0.50 0.480.13 0.58 0.57 0.10 11 F 19.44 4.23 3.59 10.99 5.05 5.02 F, A 0.29 0.180.14 0.35 0.2 0.14 12 F 16.59 5.77 0.06 12.78 6.21 0 F, A 0.25 0.37 0.120.21 0.41 0.11 13 F 33.13 13.84 0.34 10.13 8.54 0.42 F, A 0.77 0.64 0.191.01 0.57 0.21 14 F 50.03 42.05 33.14 4.75 10.44 8.41 F, A 12.92 11.073.83 5.87 2.85 1.43 15 F 56.67 51.86 31.62 1.28 0.37 1.75 F, A 21.5014.72 1.65 5.44 5.70 0.75

The data of Table 5 demonstrate that SFM comprising a starch sourceother than corn starch was almost completely degraded in ruminal invitro fermentation assays after 24 hours. SFM comprising a starch sourceother than corn starch was also almost completely degraded when a24-hour fermentation was followed by amylase treatment.

SFM comprising an acid source other than acetic acid was almostcompletely degraded in ruminal in vitro fermentation assays after 24hours. SFM comprising an acid source other than acetic acid was alsoalmost completely degraded when a 24-hour fermentation was followed byamylase treatment.

Approximately 68% of SFM comprising corn starch and acetic acid(controls; Treatments 14 and 15) was digested by ruminal fermentationafter 24 hours. When fermentation was followed by amylase treatment,approximately 97% of the SFM was digested.

Approximately 11% of Bio-Res pellets were digested by ruminalfermentation after 24 hours. When fermentation was followed by amylasetreatment, approximately 13% of the Bio-Res pellets were digested.

The results of Table 5 demonstrate that SFM comprising a starch sourceother than corn starch and an acid source other than acetic acid aredigested faster than SFM comprising corn starch and acetic acid inruminal in vitro fermentation assays followed or not by alpha-amylasetreatment.

Example 5—In Vitro Digestion of Starch-Based Fiber Material

Treatment D of Example 1 was tested in an in vitro digestion assay tostudy SFM breakdown in the rumen, the abomasum, and the smallintestines.

5.1—Materials and Methods

Samples of Treatment D of Example 1 were cut into ⅛ inch (0.3cm)-strips. The strips were subject to the following conditions as shownin Table 6: 24-hour in vitro fermentation (F) according to the procedureof Example 3; 24-hour in vitro fermentation according to the procedureof Example 3 immediately followed by alpha-amylase treatment (whichcomprised incubating a sample in 75 ml Van Soest buffer and 75 μl ofalpha-amylase (Ankom Technologies, Macedon, N.Y.)) for 1 h (F, A);24-hour in vitro fermentation according to the procedure of Example 3immediately followed by acid pepsin treatment (which comprisedincubating a sample in 150 ml of a 0.1 N HCl solution with 2 g/L pepsin)for 2 h and then alpha-amylase treatment for 1 h (F, P, A). Fermentationsimulates digestion in the rumen, acid pepsin treatment simulatesdigestion in the abomasum, and alpha-amylase treatment simulatesdigestion in the small intestines.

5.2—Results and Conclusions

The data in Table 6 is an average of three replications for eachcondition.

TABLE 6 Digestibility Results Condition Start DM (g) End DM (g) Degraded(%) F 1.40 0.27 80.5 F, A 1.40 0.035 97.5 F, P, A 1.38 0 100

The data of Table 6 demonstrate that approximately 81% of the SFM wasdigested by ruminal fermentation after 24 hours. When fermentation wasfollowed by amylase treatment, approximately 98% of the SFM wasdigested. When fermentation was followed by both acid pepsin andalpha-amylase treatments, 100% of the SFM was digested.

The results demonstrate that SFM was digestible in the rumen as well asin the abomasum and small intestines. SFM was completely digested in invitro studies simulating ruminant total tract digestibility.

Example 6—in Sacco Digestion of Starch-Based Fiber Material

Particle size is known to impact the digestibility of animal feeds,which in turn influences feed production and packaging. Several lengthsof SFM were tested in an in sacco digestion assay to study the impact ofSFM length on digestibility.

6.1—Material and Methods

Two rumen cannulated steers were fed a ration according to Table 7 forat least 7 days before experiments began. DC999 Base is a feedconcentrate with vitamins and minerals. DC999 Hi-Supp is a proteinsupplement.

TABLE 7 Ration Formulation AF DM Component (lb.) (lb.) Corn Silage 18.047.12 Alfalfa Hay 3.23 2.76 Wheat Straw 0.70 0.60 Whole Cottonseed 0.780.69 Propel Energy Plus (Purina Animal 0.79 0.78 Nutrition, Shoreview,MN) DC999 Base 11-2014 4.01 3.57 Corn, dry ground 1.38 1.21 DC999Hi-Supp 10-2013 3.07 2.76 Total 32.00 19.49

A starch-based fiber material was prepared according to Table 8. Thecomponents were blended in a 30-gallon stainless steel tank. Use of coldliquid helped to minimize clumping upon addition of the starch andcontinuous agitation helped to prevent the starch from settling to thebottom of the tank. The liquid was pumped to a Readco continuous mixerusing a piston pump. A soy oil dripping system supplied oil to theformula prior to heating.

The mixer was run at 45 rpm with 310° F. steam supplied to the mixerjacket, which was equipped with a condensate trap on the outlet. Theexit gate of the mixer was closed to a ⅛-in opening, which allowed thematerial to exit the mixer at 175° F. to 180° F. The material was clear,which indicated that the ingredients had been adequately heated andreacted. The material was dropped into a Moyno pump with an augerfeeding the material into a rotor and stator to promote pumping.

The material exited the pump via a T-pipe feeding two ⅜-inch pipe thateach dropped material onto a drying belt. The drying belt was run at 5.5ft/min. A heater plus fan produced an exit air temperature of 118° F.The ambient air temperature was about 70° F. The material was removedfrom the end of the drying belt, placed on metal sheets, and dried a hotroom for several hours. Then the material was removed from the sheetsand placed directly on a wire drying rack, which promoted better aircirculation and more exposed surface area in order to increase thedrying rate.

TABLE 8 Components of Starch-Based Fiber Material Ingredient Wt %Glycerin 18.14 Citric acid anhydrous 1.43 Corn starch 25.43 Water 55.00

Samples of the SFM formulation of Table 8 were cut into 0.4 cm, 6 cm, or12 cm strips and were weighed (5 g) into dry in situ forage bags (AnkomR1020, 10 cm×20 cm; Ankom Technologies, Macedon, N.Y.; 100° C. for 24h). The bags were then heat sealed and weighed. Bags were placed insacco for 0 h, 6 h, 10 h, 18 h, 24 h, or 48 h. Each of the strip lengthswas provided to each of the 2 steers for study at each of the 6 timepoints. After the study period, bags were removed from the rumen, rinsedin cold water until the water ran clear, and then dried at 100° C. for24 h. The bags, including their contents, were then weighed to determinedry matter digestion.

6.2—Results and Conclusions

Results of the in sacco digestion assay are presented in FIG. 1. Theresults demonstrate that SFM is digested in the rumen. Approximately 39%of each length of SFM was digested within 6 h and approximately 43% ofeach length of SFM was digested within 10 h. At least 49% was digestedwithin 18 h, at least 51% within 24 h, and at least 65% within 48 h. The12-cm pieces were digested to a slightly lesser extent than the 0.4-cmpieces at the 18-, 24-, and 48-h time points, and the 6 cm pieces weredigested to a slightly lesser extent than the 12-cm pieces at the 18-,24-, and 48-h time points.

The results of FIG. 1 also demonstrate that the rate of digestionchanged over time. The rate was highest within the first 6 h and thenslowed down. The digestion pattern of FIG. 1 is slower than known starchbreakdown patterns, but faster than expected forage patterns.

Example 7—Consumption of SFM

Feed component particle size is known to impact sorting and selecting offeed ration components by animals. Several lengths of SFM were tested invivo to study the impact of SFM length on feeding behavior (sorting).

7.1—Materials and Methods

Steers were fed total mixed ration (TMR) diets (34 lbs.) consisting of25% corn silage, 25% alfalfa hay, and 50% DC999 on an as-is basis.

Two Holstein steers were fasted for 1 h before being offered 1300 g (2.8lb.) of TMR mixed with 1300 g of SFM prepared according to Table 8 ineither 2.5- or 5-inch lengths. After 1 h, the uneaten SFM was weighedand divided evenly into the 4 remaining feedings for the day. The SFMremaining after 24 h was weighed.

7.2—Results and Conclusions

TABLE 9 SFM Consumption Amount Amount SFM Length Amount Fed RemainingRemaining Steer (in) (g AF) After 1 h (g AF) After 24 h (g AF) A 2.51300 120 0 B 2.5 1300 6 0 A 5 1300 0 0 B 5 1300 0 0

The results of Table 9 demonstrate that all or almost all of the SFM wasconsumed within 1 hour regardless of product length and all of the SFMwas consumed within 24 hours. The results also indicate that steers werenot sorting against SFM and consumed it when it was offered.

SFM may be a feed ingredient even in rations or situations in whichsorting is a challenge.

Example 8—Composting of Starch-Based Fiber Material

Results of Example 5 demonstrate that SFM is completely broken down inan in vitro model of digestion in the rumen, abomasum, and smallintestines. The compostability of SFM was studied to investigate thefate of SFM that passes through the digestive tract in vivo.

8.1—Materials and Methods

SFM was produced using the components of Table 10.

TABLE 10 Components of SFM Used in Composting Study Ingredient TRT (wt%) Water 68.3 Vinegar (8% acetic acid) 9.2 Citric Acid Glycerin 9.2 CornStarch 13.2

Ten kg of active compost was collected from the Purina CompostingCenter. At least 2 kg of particles that passed through a 3-mm sievescreen were collected, to which 10% ground (3 mm) alfalfa hay and 10%water, to a final moisture content of 40-60%, were added to produceStarting Compost. Trials were conducted in 12 oz. (375 ml) plasticcontainers with 75 3-mm aeration holes drilled into the bottom, sides,and lid. SFM and alfalfa stems were cut to 15 mm. Starting Compost (100g) and 10 g of either SFM or alfalfa stems (as a control) were added toeach container and covered with a lid. SFM was tested in triplicate ateach time point; a single container of alfalfa stems was tested at eachtime point.

The starting weight of each container was 140 g. Moisture content wasmaintained at 40-60% by adding water as necessary up to the startingweight. At the end of each of 2 weeks, 4 weeks, 6 weeks, 8 weeks, and 10weeks, the contents of the containers were sieved through a 3-mm screento collect any remaining SFM or alfalfa stems. The collected SFM oralfalfa stems were dried and weighed to calculated % degraded.

8.2—Results and Conclusions

Results of the composting study are presented in Table 11 and FIG. 2.

TABLE 11 Composting of SFM Mean % Degradation Week SFM Alfalfa Stems 250.60 22.2 4 74.67 22.4 6 85.40 30.0 9 94.07 38.0 11 96.47 51.0

The results demonstrate the SFM was degraded to a greater extent thancontrol (alfalfa stems) at each tested time point. SFM was 50% degradedafter 2 weeks; alfalfa stems were 22% degraded after 2 weeks. Alfalfastems were not 50% degraded until after 11 weeks. SFM was almostcompletely (94%) degraded after 9 weeks. The rate of degradation overthe first 4 weeks was faster for SFM than for control.

The results of Table 11 and FIG. 2 demonstrate that if SFM were to bepassed through an animal into the manure, it would be degradable atleast by composting.

While the present disclosure provides various ranges, it will beunderstood that values, such as numeric integer values, at or withinthese ranges, or various ranges within the disclosed ranges, or rangesbeginning or ending at a range value and beginning or ending at a valuewithin the disclosed ranges may be used in particular embodimentswithout departing from the invention.

The various embodiments described above are provided by way ofillustration only and should not be construed to limit the claimsattached hereto. It will be recognized that various modifications andchanges may be made without following the example embodiments andapplications illustrated and described herein, and without departingfrom the true spirit and scope of the claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of feeding a ruminant, the methodcomprising: feeding the ruminant a substitute fiber material, thesubstitute fiber material comprising at least one starch, at least onecross-linker, and at least one plasticizer, wherein the starch is heatedin the presence of the cross-linker to cross-link the starch, and thenthe substitute fiber material is dried to form a cross-linkedbioplastic, wherein the substitute fiber material is at least partiallydigested by the ruminant, wherein the starch is present at about 2 wt %to about 25 wt % based on a total weight of the substitute fibermaterial before being dried, and the starch is provided as particleshaving a particle size such that about 20% to 55% of the particles passthrough a 200 mesh screen, wherein the at least one cross-linker ispresent at about 0.2 wt % to about 16 wt % based on a total weight ofthe substitute fiber material before being dried, and wherein the atleast one plasticizer is present at about 1 wt % to 24 wt % based on atotal weight of the substitute fiber material before being dried.
 2. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the substitute fiber material comprises atleast one starch in an amount of about 25 wt % to about 70 wt % by dryweight of the substitute fiber material.
 3. The method of claim 1,wherein the at least one starch is a whole grain.
 4. The method of claim3, wherein the whole grain comprises one or more of corn, wheat, oat, orbarley.
 5. The method of claim 3, wherein the whole grain in thesubstitute fiber material has a particle size such that about 3% to 10%of the particles pass through a 400 mesh screen.
 6. The method of claim1, wherein the at least one cross-linker is an edible acid and comprisesone or more of acetic acid, citric acid, fumaric acid, lactic acid,malic acid, phosphoric acid or tartaric acid.
 7. The method of claim 6,wherein the edible acid is citric acid.
 8. The method of claim 1,wherein the plasticizer comprises one or more of arabitol, erythritol,glycerin, isomalt, lactitol, maltitol, mannitol, sorbitol or xylitol. 9.The method of claim 8, wherein the plasticizer is glycerin.
 10. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the substitute fiber material isbiodegradable.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the substitute fibermaterial is at least partially degraded in each of the rumen, theabomasum, and the small intestines.
 12. The method of claim 1, whereinthe substitute fiber material is at least partially degraded in therumen.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the substitute fiber materialhas a total tract digestibility of about 100 percent.
 14. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the substitute fiber material comprises strips of about0.2 cm to 20 cm in length.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the starchis heated to at least 145° F. in the presence of the cross-linker tocross-link the starch.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the starch ispresent at about 10 wt % to about 25 wt % based on a total weight of thesubstitute fiber material before being dried.
 17. The method of claim 1,wherein the at least one cross-linker is present at about 1 wt % toabout 10 wt % based on a total weight of the substitute fiber materialbefore being dried.
 18. The method of claim 1, wherein the at least oneplasticizer is present at about 2 wt % to 20 wt % based on a totalweight of the substitute fiber material before being dried.